RELIGION AND CULTURE
In studying religion from an anthropological perspective, we need to consider that all human phenomena--biological, historical, linguistic, or cultural--must be brought into relation with each other if we are to understand the human whole. To better understand our humanness, we need to have a good concept of culture.
Culture can be considered as the entire social heritage of man; specifically, it is the tradition of a particular human group, a way of living learned from, and shared by, the members of that group. Understanding the concept of culture is key to understanding human behavior.
Religion, like culture itself, consists of systematic patterns of beliefs, values, and behavior, acquired by people as a member of their society. These patterns are systematic because their manifestations are regular in occurrence and expression: they are shared by member of a group. Within all religions, however, there is not homogeneity; there are differences of interpretation of principles and meanings.
There are numerous ways we can define religion from an anthropological perspective. Consider the following as components of a definition:
- System of beliefs in supernatural forces with symbols and rituals that make life meaningful;
- Concerned with the expression of social values in a given setting, and attempts to safeguard them by endowing them with divine sanction;
- A system of symbols with acts to establish powerful, pervasive, and long lasting moods and motivations by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and clothing these perceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and motivations seem uniquely realistic (Geertz 1966). In other words, this symbol must help to construct how a society will view the world around them.
What becomes important is to recognize what is implied by the nature of the "sacred." For some this means that when you enter a church sanctuary or temple you adjust your attitude toward the sacredness of the place and the reason that you have went there for. To others in different cultures, sacredness takes on the importance of life itself.
What is the difference between sacred and profane? Provide an example of an action that can be considered either sacred or profane, depending on its context (e.g., eating-taking the sacrament at mass versus sitting down to dinner).
Let's examine some of the components of these definitions:
Supernatural --the term implies that there is a realm of the world (the natural) and the realm of the super-- (beyond the natural). This is a concept that is well-defined in the west,
but of little significance in many other cultures. Beliefs in some form of supernatural power is nearly universal and can be seen as either focusing on the idea of dieties or gods versus those with lesser powers who tend to get involved in human affairs. For example:
- Gods-- may have created the world, directed the creation by other, or perhaps lesser beings. Gods may be individually known, named, and personalized, recognizable by their attributes. Gods usually possess superhuman powers, but few are considered omnipotent. Gods may also be knowledgable about how to make the world work properly.
- Culture Heroes -- extraordinary people in historic times who were glorified and revered by a group of people. They are usually the direct ancestors of the people. Myths often recount that culture heroes were semi-divine--direct descendants of the gods, or specially created by the gods to establish a religion, cult, or clan.
- Ancestors-- the souls of deceased persons who stand in a lineal relationship with those who accept him or her. Ancestors may be harsh or benevolent; they watch over things. They are often consulted on special occasions or can be summoned for help.
- Ghosts---the differentiated souls of deceased people who, for various reasons, have not reached or remained in the other world. (See Household Spirits)
- Shaman---What is a Shaman?
Provide three examples of the supernatural from your own culture. Also provide three examples of the supernatural from other religions or cultures (e.g., Hercules as an example of culture hero from Greek mythology) and the powers associated with them.
What are symbols?
Symbols refer to things, present or absent, past or future, experience or not directly observed. Each culture possesses its own symbolic system; through understanding these symbols we can communicate and interact on abstract levels and makes it possible for us to think in religious terms.
What are some examples of non-religious symbols in our culture? Does everyone in our culture share an understanding of the "true meaning" of these symbols? What are some examples of religious symbols? Does everyone in the same religion share an understanding of the "true meaning" of these symbols?
What are your reactions to the following symbols?
What is ritual?
Rituals are designed both to express belief and to bring about specific ends. Ritual behavior is motivated by a desire to gain some form of satisfaction and is expected to be
effective. Rituals often deal with such human concerns as health, fertility, and general welfare, however, the purposes may vary with the participants. Ritual is widely regarded as the most fundamental unit of religious expression.
Rituals represent the major link between the supernatural and the social world: if men make sacrifices, then their gods must demand them; if men sing and dance in rituals, their gods must enjoy them. Rituals thus reflect, to a significant degree, the qualities people have attributed to the supernatural.
Ritual is based on dogma. Dogma expresses a people's relation to the supernatural, and includes reference to what they must do in order to maintain this relationship and profit by it.
There are two types of rituals: critical or nonperiodic and calendrical or periodic.
Critical rituals frequently occur at times of life crises such as birth, puberty, marriage or death. In these rituals, there is often a change of status that involves a shifting of roles. For example, at puberty, children become adults and responsible members of a community or religious group, or they may become warriors or workers; they may now be eligible to marry.
What are some examples in our society of critical rituals? Examples-rites of passage- Nuer boys,
Sunrise dance
Calendrical rituals tend to have impact on the entire society; they take place at certain times of the year and reaffirm and keep the cycle of things going. Agricultural people, for example, divide up the year according to seasons, or the dividing point between seasons. Our ancestors did this as well--consider our holidays and when they occur. Think about the connection between the occurrence of the vernal equinox (spring) and Easter or the autumnal equinox and Thanksgiving.
What are some examples of calendrical rituals?
What is myth?
Myth is a term applied to stories that are culturally considered to be "sacred truth." Myth is truth--sacred truth. It is maintained in the realm of the sacred through ritual. Myths are stories that describe the origins of salient things in human experience such as death, fire, agriculture, humanity, customs, beliefs, and landscape features. They often describe the exploits of culture heroes--spirits, animals, quasi-human beings, or inanimate objects--who play important roles in shaping the human roles. There are several themes which occur in myths throughout the world; for example, :
- Creation--origin of the world (Quick Look at Lacandon Myth of Creation)
- Cosmic- structure of the universe
- Humanity- life and death
- Supernatural beings- gods, spirits, and demons
- Cosmic disasters- end of the world
- Heroes and Tricksters- bring change in life
What are some myths you can think of? In your religion? In non-religious contexts? Here is a source of myths on the Internet, see if you can find some commonalities and differences in these.
Types of Religious Systems
Monotheism--belief in one god (e.g., Christianity, Islam)
Polytheism-- belief in many gods
Pantheism--God is present in all things and transcends all things (e.g., Hinduism)
Animism--belief in spirit beings that animate nature (e.g., rain gods); they may or may not take human shape (e.g., Hopi); humans share the world with a population of extraordinary, extracorporeal, and mostly invisible beings, ranging from souls and ghosts to saints and fairies, angels, demons, devils, and gods.
Exploration: 64 World Religions
Cross-Cultural Exploration: Kogi and Chinese
Exploration: Ancient Neolithic Burials
Can you think of any reasons why a monotheistic view would develop from polytheism?
